hebrews

Background

Date of composition.   Several points in the book help to indicate its date. First, Timothy was still alive (13:23). Second, and most important, the Jewish temple cult seems to have been still functioning (8:4, 13; 9:6–9; 10:1–3), requiring a date before 70. Other supposed indicators, as that Paul had died (cf. 13:23[1]), and that 2:3 implies second generation Christianity, are very weak. Many conservatives date the book in the late 60’s.

Authorship.   The book itself provides pitifully few indications of its authorship. Two suggestions as to who wrote the epistle have very ancient support: Paul and Barnabas. The evidence for Pauline authorship focuses on the thought of the letter. The author’s association with Timothy also makes Paul a reasonable possibility. But almost any of the top echelon Christian leaders at the time could have qualified on these criteria. Against Paul as author, many have agreed that “when Hebrews is read in Greek and compared with the known letters of Paul, the total impression is that here one meets a spiritual mind clearly attuned to Paul but in subtle ways quite different.”[2]

Evidence that Barnabas wrote the book is probably even more scanty. Beyond the traditional attribution (which cannot simply be dismissed), little more evidence can be marshaled than that Barnabas being a Levite (Acts 4:36) would quite understandably have had special interest in things priestly. Barnabas is also traditionally associated with the western church, which would harmonize well with the only geographical indicator in the book, a reference to Italy (13:24).

Another reasonable suggestion is that Luke is the author (or possibly the translator of Paul’s work in Hebrew). This has some ancient support, though not as much as Paul and Barnabas. The high quality of the Greek and a few affinities with Acts, especially Stephen’s speech in Acts 7, are about the only positive data that might point to Luke.

Another relatively popular theory is that Apollos was the author. His qualifications include his association with Paul, his intellectual power, and his popular influence among churches. But the fact that there is no known ancient support for the theory is a serious drawback to the case.

It is granted the book has legitimately found its way into the canon, which necessitates apostolic authorship. This would rule out the suggestions that either Priscilla or Clement of Rome is its author. Other suggestions, including Silas, are not ruled out on this basis, as he was demonstrably a close associate of Paul.

Our conclusion must be with the majority clear back to Origen who said, “But who wrote the Epistle God only knows certainly.”[3]

Destination.   If the question of authorship is difficult, the destination issue is equally difficult. First, it can be said with confidence that it was written to a particular church. Reference is made to their past experiences of persecution and community solidarity (10:32–34), and their fellowship with other (persecuted?) saints (6:10; 13:3). This group has identifiable spiritual weaknesses (5:11—6:12; 13:17). They also have a relationship with the author (13:18–24).

Second, it is fairly clear the church is at least primarily Jewish. The reference in 1:1 to “the fathers” seems to argue for a Jewish audience. The importance of the Old Testament and the Jewish religious system, especially Israel’s priesthood and ancient tabernacle, coupled with the central exhortation of the letter to cut off finally any associations with Judaism, are convincing clues.

Attempts to determine the geographical location of these recipients are notoriously frustrated. Suggestions include Jerusalem, some other Palestinian town, North African cities, Rome, and Corinth.

Purpose.   This church was composed of Jewish believers who had experienced persecution for their faith, yet though they had known Christ savingly for no small time, they were entertaining ideas conflicting with the gospel (5:12). They were apparently tempted to return to the ‘security’ of Judaism, abandoning their faith in the Messiah (10:19–39; 13:9–15, especially v. 13). Such apostasy would be a disastrous mistake, according to the author, constituting a repudiation of faith, and thus calling into question the reality of their salvation. His language, in fact, is even stronger: “For if we go on sinning willfully after receiving the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins, but a certain terrifying expectation of judgment” (10:26–27).

Argument

The book of Hebrews is by its own description a “word of exhortation” (13:22; cf. Acts 13:15); something like a sermon manuscripted and made into a piece of correspondence from an authoritative preacher to a church. As such its thrust is both doctrinal and hortatory, being sprinkled throughout with exhortations and warnings, not as side lights added into an otherwise doctrinal exposition, but as central to the whole piece.

The key to the literary structure is that oscillation between doctrinal exposition and warning, reflected in the Outline below. The plan is further indicated by the author in the substantial repetition of material in 4:14–16 and 10:19–25. These paragraphs provide the framing boundaries of the “priestly unit,” 4:14—10:25. Before that unit and following the Prologue (1:1–14) is a section comprised of Warning one, Exposition, and Warning two (2:1—4:13). After that unit and before the Epilogue (13:1–25) is another section comprised of Warning four, Exposition, and Warning five (10:26—12:29). The priestly unit then is comprised of Exposition, Warning three, and Exposition, with the framing paragraphs marking the beginning and ending of this large unit.

The theological theme of the entire book is established in the prologue: like the Old Testament, Jesus was an inerrant revelation from God; yet unlike it, he was a perfect, and thus ultimate, representation of God—He is the last word (1:1–3). The word “son” is used both to stress his qualitative superiority to the prophets, and to anticipate its subsequent use alluding to vassal co-regency (i.e., King … of earth; cf. Ps. 2:6–7) with the Father.

The rest of the next ten chapters is designed to prove and apply the thesis of the prologue. This section is composed entirely of comparisons showing Jesus’ superiority; and every element to which he is shown superior is some key aspect of or person identified with the Sinai (Old) Covenant. 

Through chapter 4 there is reference to Jesus’ role as king, and in chapters 5 to 10 the reference is to his role as priest—of the New Covenant. The case can be made that the epistle is an exposition of Psalm 110 (see 1:13; 5:6; 7:17, 21; 10:12–13), and especially that Jesus is the King-Priest Messiah. The first line of evidence in support of the contention of Jesus’ primacy as the ultimate (and thus superior) revelation of God is his superiority to angels, the agents of the Old Testament revelation (2:2). As proof of Jesus’ superiority to angels the author uses Old Testament Scriptures which refer to a royal personage and his eternal dominion in contrast to the servitude of angels (1:4–14). The warning which follows is a logical a fortiori application of the preceding: if attention to the revelation through angels—i.e., Sinai Covenant—was critical, how much more the revelation through him demonstrably so much greater than angels (2:1–4).

His superiority to angels is further demonstrated by the work he accomplished, the salvation of man (2:5–18). As king he—not angels—is destined to rule “the world to come” (2:5). So how is it that he is “lower than the angels” (2:7, 9)? His incarnation does not constitute a contradiction of the claim of superiority to angels, since it involved only temporary subordination (2:9), and that for the accomplishment of a work no angel could perform: to lead men to salvation he had to become one of them (2:10). The related objection of his suffering is also explained as vicarious and redemptive, the victory over man’s ultimate foe, death, communicated to man (2:14–18).

The comparison to Moses continues the revelatory theme in that he was the human agent of the heart of the Old Testament. It also continues the son-king idea. Both were faithful in their respective roles (3:1–2). But where Moses was a faithful “servant” “in” God’s house, Jesus is the faithful “son” (vassal king) “over” it (3:3–6).

The predominant hortatory purpose of the epistle is evident in the abrupt turn to this second and extended warning (3:7—4:13). Using another a fortiori argument the author warns his readers not to repeat the sins of their forefathers who rebelled in the desert. He shows that as disobedience in Moses’ time resulted in destruction even of those beneficiaries of the Red Sea redemption (3:16), how much more shall failure to believe (obediently) this greater Moses be visited with judgment! The quote from Psalm 95 (3:7–11) serves the author’s purposes by its linking of faith and rest, and by the implication in the opening word, “Today,” of future fulfillment (4:6–11). The structure of the midrash on the Psalm (3:12—4:13) is defined by the [imperative]–“lest” formula found in 3:12; 4:1, 11. It appears to indicate three stages of danger: first, falling away from God through unbelief (3:12–19); second, coming short of the present promise of rest (4:1–10); and third, falling [into judgment] through the same kind of disobedience (4:12–13). The exhortation is to persevering faith in this ultimate revelation (in the son); but with a crucial dimension of watchfully urging one’s brothers and sisters in the congregation not to drift or fall away.

The author suddenly introduces Jesus as our “great high priest” (and now as “the Son of God;” 4:14; compare 1:2, 5). He is going to carry this priest theme clear through chapter 10 verse 18. He has first to explain how he can call Jesus priest, which he does by first defining the requirements for becoming a priest (5:1–4), and then by showing the correspondences in Jesus’ case (5:5–10). If the reference to the Melchizedekian priestly order in verse 6 seemed curious, its purpose is clarified by the parallel reference to Psalm 2: just as in Psalm 2:7 the heavenly king appointed Messiah (Ps 2:2; Heb 5:4 ho christos) to be his earthly king, so in Psalm 110:4 he also appointed him priest.

The author’s tantalizing introduction to Melchizedek (vv. 6, 10) piques the reader’s curiosity, but he suspends that line of discussion while he launches into a fearful warning (5:11—6:20). The continuation of his message could not be appreciated by those who have become “dull of hearing” (5:11; note the repetition of the word for “dull” in 6:12, forming an inclusio defining the theme of the whole section contained by the expression). The readers are warned not to turn back to the “elementary teaching” of Judaism, and instead to follow through to the fullness of faith (6:1–3), lest any one of them apostatize before having arrived at saving faith (6:4–8). The writer’s expression of confidence (6:9–12) is not meant to dilute the warning but to encourage the individuals (“each one”) to continue diligently to the end rather than to return to Judaism. His concluding statement is about inheriting the promises of eternal life through “faith and patience” (v. 12; hendiadys, which speaks of enduring, never-ending faith), which calls attention to his main point for both the warning now completed as well as the example of Abraham which follows. The story from the life of Abraham (6:13–18) is given to assure the readers that if they will believe to the end they shall surely receive the promised eternal life, as the promise is the surest possible (vv. 17–18), and the illustration of the anchor (vv. 19–20) shows that the believers are attached to one already in heaven.

The author returns to Melchizedek to show by midrash both the priesthood of Jesus, and the superiority of his priesthood to that of Aaron. The key word in this chapter is priest/ priesthood, occurring seventeen times (and four times in the first four verses of chapter 8). The few details there are (and are not, by silence) in the Genesis account of Melchizedek are introduced (7:1–3), and midrashically interpreted to show the superiority of Melchizedek and thus his priesthood to Aaron and his (7:4–10). Our author then draws the devastating implication that the Mosaic Law is necessarily nullified (as an operative covenant; 7:11–28), which he supports by six arguments. Among other things he is paving the way for his discussion of the replacement of the Mosaic Covenant by the New. The use of Psalm 110 also highlights the important wedding of the royal and priestly roles in the one person of the Messiah. The midrash concludes with the comparison of the mortality of the Levitical priests with the (literary) immortality of Melchizedek (7:23–25). The final argument—Messiah’s impeccability vis-à-vis the Levitical priests’ sin—completes the point (7:26–28).

The point is expanded to show the replacement of the old covenant, invalidating any further temple or other Judaistic ministry, while validating the centrality of Jesus to faith (8). By showing Jesus’ superior ministry as king and priest in the heavenly tabernacle (8:1–5), he proves that the New Covenant of Jeremiah 31 (8:6–12) has been inaugurated, which in turn implies the old has been rendered obsolete (8:13).

The author begins at this point to close his argument for the ultimate superiority of Jesus (9:1—10:18). The key words here are blood (12x from 9:7 to 10:4) and sin (12x from 9:7 to 10:18) which are related to the issue of forgiveness (8:12; 9:7, 9, 12, 13–14, 22, 26, 28; 10:2–4, 11–12, 17–18). Here he contrasts point by point the ministry of the wilderness tabernacle—and particularly the Day of Atonement—with Jesus’ ministry in the heavenly tabernacle. After reviewing various ordinances of the (earthly) tabernacle (9:1–7), he shows its inherent weakness, that it is actually restrictive of access to God (9:8–10). The ministry of the heavenly tabernacle is superior, however, by its separation from this created world (9:11) and its atonement for sins of the “conscience” (the equivalent of “spirit” in Paul; 9:12–14). Its inauguration is demonstrated by the death of him making it (9:15–22). The contrast continues with the superiority of the New Covenant offering, in that it is heavenly and offered once for all (9:23–28). As the climactic result this New Covenant focused in Jesus provides real and final forgiveness of sins (10:1–18). Because of the impotence of the old animal sacrifices to provide forgiveness (10:1–4), they were replaced by the one obedient sacrifice of Jesus (10:5–10), whose sacrifice was uniquely efficacious for forgiveness, so that no further sacrifice need or can be offered (10:11–18).

The closing framing paragraph of the priestly unit recapitulates the key idea and its primary exhortations: since Jesus is now our High Priest, the church collectively must faithfully “hold fast” (to the Gospel confession of Jesus as Messiah) and “draw near” in devoted worship (10:19–25).

This is balanced by the threat of judgment for apostatic disobedience (10:26–31; Warning #4). There is a sin for which even Jesus’ death does not atone. It is the same as the sin “of the high hand” of Numbers 15:30–36. But where that sin, being in the Sinai system, brought capital punishment, this, being in the New Covenant, brings eternal capital punishment.

The exposition between Warnings four and five includes the well loved faith chapter. But that is not a disconnected island. A key idea is that faith and endurance are fundamentally the same. So while “faith” is the dominant word in chapter 11, the words “endure” and “endurance” dominate its frame, 10:32–39 and 12:1–3.

The section begins with comments about persecution the church has suffered (10:32–24) which leads the author to urge resilient, “enduring” faith (10:35–39).

The faith chapter (11) supports the message of the first ten chapters by showing the centrality of faith even among the Old Testament heroes (sixteen named, others implied and unnamed), and thus encourages enduring faith. A key to the chapter is the formulaic “gained approval,” which defines an inclusio (vv. 3, 39) and is further emphasized in the early examples of Abel and Enoch (vv. 4, 5): approval with God is gained by faith. Another key is the emphasis on faith as being spiritual sight (for instance vv. 1, 3, 10, 27).

Chapter 12 continues the singular theme of endurance, complementing 11, in that the endurance in view is a steadfast continuance of believing. The witnesses and Jesus (12:1–4) provide models of enduring faith to be followed. To encourage the readers to endure, the author reminds them that the painful experiences in which one is tempted to give up faith ought to be considered as training (paideia, paideuō; seven times in seven verses) tools of God to promote holiness (12:5–11). This he follows with practical steps to promote endurance (12:12–13). The little paragraph about sanctification and Esau suggests there is no middle ground between endurance and failure: he who fails to endure and pursue sanctification (12:14) will become a godless, bitter root, contaminating the congregation, that must be excised (12:15–17). The final warning begins with a final contrast between the terror of Mt. Sinai (12:18–21) and the glory of Mt. Zion (12:22–24). The a fortiori argument which follows has the smell of final judgment more pungent even than those earlier (12:25–27), and yet is followed once again by an encouraging expression of confidence (12:28). The concluding note of the ominous character of God serves to underscore the seriousness of the issue (12:29).

The thirteenth chapter is a kind of epilogue and is the only stereotypically epistolary unit in the book. The six commands with which it opens are designed to promote love and holiness in the Christian community (13:1–8). There follows a final comparison between Judaism and Christianity, suggesting the necessity of leaving Judaism (13:9–17). The Mosaic sacrifices are not acceptable worship (13:9–10) because of their replacement by their antitype (13:11–14). The sacrifices now acceptable include praise (13:15), good works (13:16), and submission (13:17).

The closing incorporates the matter of a good conscience into the personal relations of the author and readers (13:18–19). The benediction brings up again the superiority of Jesus, the ideal shepherd, and connects with it the performance of pleasing works (13:20–21). The conclusion identifies the work as a “word of exhortation,” identifying for the reader the thrust of the whole (13:22–25).

Outline

I. Prologue  1:1–14

A. The superior prophet of the superior message  1:1–3

B. The name (royal “Son”) better than angels: seven OT quotations  1:4–13

C. The inferiority of angels: servants of the heirs of salvation  1:14

II. Body  2–12

A. (Warning–Exposition–Warning)  2:1—4:13

1. Warning (number one): No “escape” for those who neglect the “salvation” of the superior message  2:1–4

a) The necessity of attention to the Son  2:1

b) The a fortiori argument  2:2–3a

c) The divine origin of the message  2:3b–4

2. Exposition: Son’s superiority to the Sinai mediators  2:5—3:6

a) Greater than angels: temporarily lower but determined to reign and redeem  2:5–18

1) Exposition of Ps 8:4–6: incarnated to fulfill man’s destiny of reigning  2:5–9

2) Exposition of Ps 22:22 and Isa 8:17–18: incarnated to substitute for brothers  2:10–16

3) Faithful high priest  2:17–18

b) Greater than Moses: Son “over” God’s household  3:1–6

1) Equal in faithfulness  3:1–2

2) Superior in role  3:3–6

3. Warning (number two): don’t be like the hard-hearted generation of Israel  3:7—4:13

a) The quote from Psalm 95  3:7–11

1) Present urge not to be hard  3:7–8

2) Past example of Israel’s rebellion  3:9–11

b) The wilderness generation was hard-hearted, forbidden to enter the Land  3:12–19

1) The exhortation  3:12–13

α) Negatively  3:12

β) Positively  3:13

2) The explanation  3:14–19

α) The present necessity of persevering faith  3:14–15

β) The past example of disappearing faith  3:16–19

c) They did not identify with the faithful, and so never arrived at “rest”  4:1–10

1) The exhortation  4:1

2) The explanation  4:2–10

α) Israel’s failure through unbelief  4:2

β) Believers’ share in God’s rest  4:3–10

(i) God’s promise to share his rest  4:3–5

(ii) Believers’ present promise of rest  4:6–10

d) The urge to corporate diligence: the stakes are high because of the living, spiritual word  4:11–13

1) The exhortation  4:11

2) The threat of judgment by God’s word  4:12–13

B. Priestly Unit: Jesus the Ultimate High Priest (Exposition–Warning–Exposition)  4:14—10:25

1. Introductory framing paragraph (whose mate is 10:19–25)  4:14–16
Since we have this High Priest, let us hold fast, let us draw near

2. Exposition: Initial support of the idea of Messiah as also being High Priest  5:1–10

a) General priestly requirements  5:1–4

1) His sacrifices for others  5:1–2

2) His sacrifices for himself  5:3

3) His divine appointment  5:4

b) Jesus’ qualifications as priest  5:5–10

1) His divine appointment (Ps 2:7; 110:4)  5:5–6

2) His perfecting experiences  5:7–8

3) His perfect ministry  5:9

4) His priestly order  5:10

3. Warning (number three)  5:11—6:20

a) The warning proper: against “sluggishness,” apostasy  5:11—6:12

1) The “need” for milk instead of solid food  5:11–14

(α) The readers’ contemplation of reversion  5:11–12

(β) The radical contrast between infancy and perfection  5:13–14

2) The need to leave elementary teachings and press on in perfection  6:1–3

3) The danger of apostasy  6:4–8

4) The affirmation of corporate faith coupled with exhortation to growing individual faith  6:9–12

b) Encouragement unto Abrahamic “patient faith”  6:13–20

1) Abraham patiently believed God’s sworn promise  6:13–18

2) Our eternal hope is based on God’s reliable word  6:19–20

4. Exposition  7:1—10:18

a) The Melchizedek analogy  7:1–10

1) Relevant facts  7:1–3

2) Demonstration of Levi’s inferiority to Melchizedek (as priest)  7:4–10

b) The superiority of the Melchizedek order coupled with the inadequacy of the Aaronic  7:11–28

1) The prophecy of Melchizedek (Ps 110:4) implies the inadequacy of Sinai  7:11–12

2) The tribe (Judah) argument  11:13–14

3) The order (Melchizedek) argument  11:15–17

4) The hope argument  11:18–19

5) The oath argument  11:20–22

6) The endurance argument  11:23–25

7) The sinlessness argument  11:26–28

c) Transitional summary: Messiah’s heavenly priesthood  8:1–5

d) The New Covenant (Jer 31:31–34) and the obsolescence of the old  8:6–13

e) Sinaitic Day of Atonement  9:1–10

1) Review of key elements  9:1–7

2) Implications: restricted access  9:8–10

f) Messiah’s superior blood, sacrifice, death  9:11—10:4

1) Superior spiritual atonement  9:11–14

2) New Covenant inauguration by Messiah’s atoning death  9:15–22

α) Redemption by death  9:15

β) Covenant inauguration by death  9:16–18

γ) Mosaic precedent  9:19–22

3) Superior once-for-all sacrifice  9:23–28

α) Heavenly  9:23–25

β) Once for all  9:26–28

g) Replacement of the ancient sacrifices by Messiah’s  10:1–10

1) Old Covenant sacrifices were shadow not substance  10:1–4

2) Sacrifice of Messiah’s body sanctifies, fulfills the will of God (Psalm 40:6–8)  10:5–10

h) Conclusion: full and final forgiveness  10:11–18
(Thus the ancient sacrificial system is nullified.)

5. Concluding framing paragraph  10:19–25
Since we have this High Priest, let us hold fast, let us draw near

a) The theological bases  10:19–21

1) The spiritual-heavenly New Covenant  10:19–20

2) The Great High Priest  10:21

b) The exhortations  10:22–25

1) Toward God: Draw near  10:22

2) Toward the gospel: Hold fast  10:23

3) Toward the church: Consider  10:24–25

C. (Warning–Exposition–Warning)  10:26—12:29

1. Warning (number four): Defiant sin is eternally fatal  10:26–31

a) Statement of the principle  10:26–27

b) The a fortiori (OT–NT) argument  10:28–29

c) God’s opposition to sin  10:30–31

2. Exposition: Enduring faith  10:32—12:17

a) Enduring persecution  10:32–34

b) Salvation by enduring faith  10:35–39

c) Models of enduring faith  11:1–40

1) Introduction  11:1–3

2) Heroes (thirteen [?] named plus various unnamed)  11:4–38

3) Conclusion 11:39–40

d) The ultimate model of enduring faith: Jesus  12:1–4

e) The accompaniment of enduring faith: training (discipline)  12:5–11

f) Exhortations to communal enduring faith  12:12–17

3. Warning (number five): Rejecting the new word (i.e., 1:2), the New Covenant Gospel  12:18–29

a) Contrast of two allegorized mountains (Sinai and Zion), prophets (Moses and Jesus)  12:18–24

1) Sinai (earthly), Moses  12:18–21

α) The phenomena  12:18–19a

β) The fearful responses  12:19b–21

2) Zion (heavenly), Jesus  12:22–24

α) The site  12:22a

β) The population  12:22b–24

b) The warning proper: do not turn away from the new revelation  12:25–29
No “escape” (cf. 2:3) for those who “refuse” (vv. 19, 25)

1) The warning stated  12:25a

2) The threat pronounced  12:25b–27

3) The positive exhortation  12:28

4) The ominous character of God  12:29

III. Epilogue 13:1–25

A. Six exhortations (vv. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7)  13:1–8

B. Summary: New Covenant worship analogies to OT (Sinai) worship  13:9–16

1. Prefer faithful teaching (food for the soul) instead of sacrificial foods  13:9–10

2. Embrace exclusion from Israel  13:11–14

3. Praise (Godward) and generosity (manward) as the new sacrifices  13:15–16

C. Concluding matters  13:17–25

1. Honor and submit to church leaders  13:17

2. Pray for the author-pastor  13:18–19

3. Benediction (may God equip you for good works)  13:20–21

4. Closing remarks and greetings  13:22–25