hosea

Background

Author.   The prophet Hosea was the son of one otherwise unknown Beeri (1:1). The family of which he was head is much better known, from the account of chapters 1 and 3. By divine commandment he married an apparent prostitute, Gomer, by whom he had at least three children. It seems she left him for a time, and he then tracked her down and redeemed her for himself (3:1–3).

Date of composition.   He dates his prophecy by the reigns of Uzziah through Hezekiah (790–686) in the south and Jeroboam II (793–753) in the north. His beginning date had to precede 753, when Jeroboam died (cf. 1:4), and his ending had to follow 729, the year of Hezekiah’s accession (to co-regency).

It is slightly curious that while he prophesied primarily to the northern kingdom he failed to name the six northern kings who succeeded Jeroboam, while he included the names of the Judean kings. “Perhaps it suggests the legitimacy of the Davidic dynasty (cf. 3:5) in contrast with the instability and disintegration of the kingship in the North (cf. 7:3–7).”[1]

Historical setting.   See Amos.

Argument

Probably no Old Testament prophet is as difficult to follow as Hosea. There is virtually no substantial agreement among scholars concerning the literary structure of chapters 4–14. Of these chapters La Sor says, “… they reveal no discernible order. Oracles of various subjects are placed side by side without apparent connection. Movement or progression throughout the book is almost undetectable.”[2]

Many have correctly observed the nouns of 4:1—emeth (truth), hesed (loyalty), and daath (knowledge)—as the outline.[3] These key words then head the subsequent judgment sections, in reverse order: daath at 4:6; hesed at 6:4; and emeth at 11:12.

Whatever the structure, his message is plain, being emphasized throughout by reiteration: the people of God (Israel in particular, though Judah is also rebuked and warned) will certainly reap the harvest of their violation (compared to adultery) of the covenant (specifically, Sinai) with God (compared with marriage)—specifically, military destruction at the hands of Assyria and expulsion from the land—yet God in his enduring love will ultimately draw them back to himself and will restore them to unprecedented blessing. Hosea stands out from the other prophets also in his profusion of metaphors and similes, and an eye for these helps to follow his thinking.

The book begins with the account of the prophet’s domestic life, which was itself a prophetic message. The only two prose portions of the book (1:1–9; 3:1–5) recount his domestic affairs and, sandwiched around the first poetry section, define the first and introductory portion of the prophecy (1–3). This section establishes quite graphically the metaphor of the marriage relationship between Yahweh and Israel, which sets the stage for the twin themes of chapters 4–14: Israel’s guilty apostasy, requiring immediate judgment, and Yahweh’s loving (eschatological) restoration.

Hosea’s wife was unfaithful, as was Yahweh’s. His children were signs (cf. Isa. 8:18) of impending national judgment and covenant severance (1:2–9). The first verbal prophecy, however, was of hope—eschatological salvation (1:10—2:1). The good news now established, the burden of the prophecy—condemnation—must also be verbalized initially (2:2–13). God accuses Israel of unfaithfulness not unlike the prophet’s wife’s (2:2–5), and announces his plans to chasten her and to draw her back to himself (2:6–13). Again the promise of salvation reassures Israel, both by the preaching (2:14–23) and the prophet’s domestic illustration (3:1–5).

God immediately sets out to accuse (rîb) Israel of the ultimate sin—breach of covenant (4:1–3)—which came about because of her willful rejection of knowledge of God (daath; 4:4–6) and a preference for sin (4:7–10). The expression of that sin was her decadent and intransigent idol worship (4:11–19). Being thus beyond repentance (5:1–7), there could be no (immediate) hope of good; only the anticipation of divine judgment (5:8–14). That still did not nullify God’s determination ultimately to regain Israel’s loyalty by her repentance and faith (5:15—6:3).

In the second part of God’s case against Israel the focus is on her failure to manifest hesed, covenant loyalty or love (6:4). Because of Israel’s guilty violation of the covenant and its requisite hesed, God’s bloody judgment must fall (6:4–11). God’s inclination to mercy is foiled by the official tolerance of wickedness (7:1–7). Internationally Israel made treaties in violation of the covenant, rather than rely on Yahweh for defense (7:8–16).

The judgment section now takes a turn from denunciation to pronouncement of doom. Beginning very generally Hosea affirms that covenant transgression—setting up godless leaders and idolatry—necessarily issues in a harvest of judgment (8:1–7). Her turning to Assyria for alliance (8:8–10) was but another evidence of her sinning against the covenant (8:11–14). Her (Mosaic) judgment would be exile in Assyria (9:1–6). Her irresponsible turning to Baalism could not be hidden by Yahwistic sacrifices, and must result in (Mosaic) infertility (9:7–17). Israel’s guilt is compounded (10:10 double sin) by the fact that her turning from God (one sin) came after having received only blessings from him (the second sin; 10:1–10; 11:1–7). Since such sin can only produce judgment, the people should turn and “Sow with a view to righteousness” (10:12; cf. 11–15). If the preceding was in any way unclear, the summary statement of judgment for covenant infidelity specifies Assyrian captivity (11:5–7).

God began this judgment section with the question, “What shall I do with you, O Ephraim” (6:4) in light of your covenant violation? His answer is that he must judge (6:5—11:7). Now he asks, “How can I give you up, O Ephraim?” (11:8), and proceeds to promise that he cannot but spare her from complete destruction and ultimately restore her (11:8–11).

The final part of God’s case against Israel focuses on her failure in the area of emeth, truth or faithfulness. Where God is “faithful” (ne^aman), Israel lies and is deceitful (11:12), a pattern maintained from her historical beginnings, and for which she needs to repent (12:1–6). She has wrongly assumed that her blessings bespeak uninterrupted divine approval (12:7–9), so that she has ignored divine appeals through the prophets (12:10–14). Once again the consequence is necessarily judgment (13). For her idolatry Ephraim must suffer a kind of disappearance from the land (13:1–3). For her apostasy God will attack and destroy her (13:4–8). She will lose her political sovereignty (13:9–11), and die by the sword (13:12–16).

One final time the judgment is answered by a succeeding word of salvation (14). When Israel repents and manifests faith in Yahweh (14:1–3), he guarantees restoration and fruitfulness (14:4–8). The prophet concludes by appealing to the wise and righteous among Israel to heed his message (14:9).

Outline

The structure of the book, reflected in the outline below, is defined by five cycles of Judgment and Salvation:

I. Introduction  1:1

II. The prophet’s domestic experience  1:2—3:5

A. His wife and children (Judgment, Prose)  1:2–9

1. His marriage by divine command  1:2

2. His firstborn son, Jezreel  1:3–5

a) His birth  1:3

b) Two-fold sign  1:4–5

(1) Punishment of Jehu  1:4

(2) Judgment on Israel  1:5

3. His daughter, Lo-ruhamah  1:6–7

a) Her birth  1:4a

b) The sign  1:4b–5

(1) No compassion on Israel  1:4b

(2) Compassion on Judah  1:5

4. His son, Lo-ammi  1:8–9

a) His birth  1:8

b) The sign—disowning Israel  1:9

B. Israel’s blessed status restored (Salvation, Poetry)  1:10—2:1

1. Population explosion  1:10

2. Reunion of Judah and Israel  1:11

3. Favor with God  2:1

C. Israel’s spiritual adultery condemned: Sinaitic terms (Judgment, Poetry)  2:2–13

1. Yahweh’s accusation of harlotry  2:2–5

2. Yahweh’s chastening  2:6–13

D. God’s promise of everlasting restoration (Salvation)  2:14—3:5

1. The announcement to Israel (Poetry)  2:14–23

a) God’s initial love  2:14–15

b) Israel’s faithful response: forsaking Baalism  2:16–17

c) God’s everlasting love and blessings  2:18–23

(1) Security  2:18

(2) Covenant righteousness  2:19–20

(3) Material prosperity  2:21–22

(4) Compassionate ownership  2:23

2. The enactment in the prophet’s home (Prose)  3

a) The prophet’s reclamation of his wife  3:1–3

b) God’s decree of Israel’s exile and return  3:4–5

III. The prophet’s national message: God’s judgment and restoration of Israel  4–14

A. God’s case against Israel: daath (knowledge) 4:1—6:3

1. Judgment on Israel for their lack of knowledge  4:1—5:14

a) Reasons for judgment  4:1—5:7

(1) Root cause: Israel’s breach of covenant  4:1–3

(2) Israel’s willful rejection of knowledge  4:4–6

(3) Israel’s willful preference for sin  4:7–10

(4) Israel’s idolatry  4:11–19

(a) Decadent  4:11–14

(b) Intransigent  4:15–19

(5) Summary: Beyond repentance (v. 4)  5:1–7

b) Announcement of divine judgment  5:8–14

2. Israel’s salvation  5:15—6:3

a) God’s design in chastening  5:15

b) Israel’s repentance and faith: “let us know Yahweh”  6:1–3

B. God’s case against Israel: hesed (love)  6:4—11:11

1. God’s quandary in light of Ephraim’s guilt and his own grace (Judgment: Note opening and closing questions, 6:4; 11:8)  6:4—11:7

a) Accusation of sin  6:4—7:16

(1) Israel’s violence to hesed  6:4–11

(2) Israel’s leaders’ tolerance of wickedness  7:1–7

(3) Israel’s rebellious foreign alliances  7:8–16

(a) Her appeal to Egypt and Assyria  7:8–11

(b) Her failure to trust in God  7:12–16

b) Pronouncement of judgment  8:1—11:7

(1) Israel’s doom for idolatry  8

(a) Whirlwind harvest of transgressing the covenant  8:1–7

(b) Present servility among the nations  8:8–10

(c) Judgment for distorting and forgetting the covenant  8:11–14

(2) Israel’s exile in Assyria  9:1–6

(3) Israel’s barrenness because of Baalism  9:7–17

(a) Ephraim’s irresponsibility  9:7–9

(b) Ephraim’s loss of fertility  9:10–14

(c) Ephraim’s guilty religion  9:15–17

(4) Israel’s guilt and punishment, despite blessings  10:1–10

(5) Israel’s harvest of wickedness  10:11–15

(6) Israel’s captivity (Assyria), despite divine favors  11:1–7

(a) Her guilty ignorance of God’s mercy  11:1–4

(b) Her captivity in Assyria  11:5–7

2. God’s merciful restoration of Israel in spite of her guilt (Salvation)  11:8–11

a) His superhuman mercy  11:8–9

b) His recall of Israel to the land  11:10–11

C. God’s case against Israel: emeth (truth)  11:12—14:9

1. Israel’s rebellion from her beginning (Judgment)  11:12—13:16

a) Accusation of continual rebellion, and call to repent  11:12—12:14

(1) Israel’s history of deceit  11:12—12:5

(2) God’s call to repent  12:6

(3) Israel’s presumption of blessings  12:7–9

(4) Israel’s rejection of divine appeals  12:10–14

b) Israel’s judgment for forgetting the God who bought her  13

(1) Disappearance from the world  13:1–3

(2) Violent destruction at the hand of God  13:4–8

(3) Loss of her king  13:9–11

(4) Death by the sword  13:12–16

2. Prediction of Israel’s ultimate repentance and restoration (Salvation)  14

a) Call for Israel’s repentance  14:1–3

b) God’s restored blessings on Israel  14:4–8

c) The wisdom of heeding God  14:9