leviticus

Background

Author.   The authorship issue here is very similar to that of Exodus (which see). Other arguments in favor of Mosaic authorship include the following. Leviticus is the sequel to Exodus, evidenced clearly by its opening with the “waw conversive,” and the building on the same characters and setting. Some fifty-six times the book states that “the Lord spoke to Moses.” The New Testament cites the book, and ascribes it to Moses (cf. Matt. 8:4).

Date of composition.   Since the events of the book transpire between those of Exodus and Numbers (i.e., between the second year, first month, first day [Exod. 40:17] and the second year, second month, twentieth day [Num. 10:11]), its composition most probably followed immediately upon the completion of Exodus, toward the end of their 38 years of desert wanderings (cf. Exod 40:38).

Historical setting.   Likewise the historical setting is identical to the end of Exodus. To be specific, the Israelites were camped at the base of Mt. Sinai, where they had just received the Law and the tabernacle blueprints, and had completed the construction of the tabernacle. Within a matter of weeks they were to break camp and begin to move north for the purpose of occupying the Promised Land.

Argument

The burden of the book of Leviticus is that the people in covenant with God (established in Exodus) are obligated to submit to and obey their suzerain, Yahweh. Or from the divine perspective, God expected that his people should appreciate and reflect his holiness. To this end they needed to know how to approach him (1–16) and how to conduct themselves so as not to incur his wrath (17–27). The first issue was vertical, while the second was primarily horizontal, though certainly always cognizant of the vertical priority. This second point also had a positive side: namely, that the people of God should manifest his holiness in their domestic relations, and thus be his “kingdom of priests and … holy nation” (Exod 19:6), so that they might prove to be a “light to the nations” (Isa 42:6).

Punctilious observance is the watchword of the first seven chapters, specifying the regulations for sacrifices. If the vassal people were to remain in the good graces of the suzerain, they would need to respect his holiness, and approach him with the utmost “fear” (in the best sense). As well there is important theology in the aspects of vicarious atonement and the different kinds of offerings. The notion of vicarious atonement emphasized the important truths that even unintentional violations of the suzerain’s holiness were chargeable, and the vassal had to be, and fortunately could be, separated from his sins; and that the penalty for sins was death, ideally to be born by the substitute. The different kinds of offerings—sweet savor (1–3) and non-sweet savor (4:1—6:7)—and their subcategories indicate the great holiness of Yahweh; that any approach to the suzerain—even when no sin needed to be forgiven—had to include a costly gift, because of the infinite qualitative disparity between his holiness and the people’s unholiness.

Not only must the suppliants be punctilious in their approach to God, but their priests representing them had equally to observe the requirements scrupulously (6:8—7:21). The summary (7:37–38) indicates the salient issues: Yahweh commanded the sons of Israel to present their offerings to him, and he also specified the laws, or regulations, of each of the different kinds of offerings.

If both the sacrificial system and its priests were sacred, then it was entirely fitting that both should be inaugurated with great solemnity (8–10). Hence the consecration ceremony began with a solemn convocation, so that the whole nation would be impressed with the system which was now theirs (8:1–4). The seriousness of holiness was then demonstrated by the washing, ceremonial dressing, and anointing of the priests; the anointing of the sanctuary itself; unique sacrifices for the priests; their anointing with ceremonial oil and sacrifical blood; and their week-long isolation (8:5–36). Once the priests and sanctuary were ‘set apart’ for exclusive ministry, they were inaugurated into their work (9–10). When Aaron sacrificed in accordance with the detailed instructions (9:1–21), the glory of God appeared, indicating his pleasure with the proceedings (9:22–24). Having established his attitude toward proper observance, God next demonstrated his attitude toward improper behavior by priests, as Nadab and Abihu violated God’s holiness, despising his directives, and suffered immediate, divine capital punishment (10:1–7). God’s displeasure was limited, however, to just the two in error, as he merely pronounced a warning against similar behavior by other priests, and recommissioned Aaron and his other sons to faithful service (10:8–15). Their subsequent ritual violation was excused, since it represented normal human grief (10:16–20).

Approach to the holy God demanded also that his vassals be “clean.” Various matters were defined as defiling, requiring ritual cleansing before such a person could participate in services of approach (11–15). One area where there had to be distinction between clean and unclean was animals (11; see especially the theological explanation to this effect in 11:41–47). First of all, only certain of them were ‘clean’ for use as food (11:1–23). Second, even the handling of unclean animal carcasses was defiling (11:24–40).

The matter of childbirth was defiling to the mother, requiring ritual purification (12). “Leprosy,” a broad term used in reference to certain skin disorders as well as “mould and mildew in fabrics, [and] mineral eruptions on the walls of buildings, and possibly dry rot in the fabric of such structures,”[1] was also deemed defiling (13–14).

Finally, bodily discharges—especially sex-related discharges of both male and female—were declared defiling, so that the individual was required to submit to ritual cleansings of various forms before he could resume normal participation in worship (15).

The theology of the Day of Atonement (16) is somewhat confused and debated. It seems best to regard it as the occasion and means of national cleansing from Sinaitic Covenant defilements, corresponding to the various prescriptions for the cleansing of the individual in the previous five chapters. The high priest only was to appear before God in the holiest place, first for his own sins (or defilements), and then for those of the nation (16:2–17). The altar—for the people’s daily sacrifices (1–7)—was then cleansed, the people’s sins born by the scapegoat out of the camp, and the sin offerings ritual completed (16:18–28). Thus annually the people as a whole were cleansed once again to be God’s holy people (16:29–34).

If their approach to God required holiness (cleanness), so di d their walk with God. To this people animal blood had to have a special significance (17), since it was such a basic element in their offerings to God. For this reason even the non-sacred slaughter of animals had to be regulated, to insure against the perversion of ritual sacrifices (17:3–7). Also, the pagan practice of drinking animal blood had to be banned, to prevent syncretism with idolators (17:10–16).

Because of God’s great love for individuals, interpersonal relations were a significant religious issue impinging on the holiness of the covenant people (18–20). Sexual relations had to be regulated so as to protect the family, the basic building block of society (18). Other social matters also became significant for a people bound by the Decalogue, with its vertical component (19:1–8) preceding the horizontal (19:9–18): positive love was incumbent. Beyond that various areas of life must also reflect God’s holiness (19:19–37). To protect itself from the corrupting influence of isolated individuals (20:22–26) the community was empowered to purge itself, by punishing violators according to prescribed sentences (20).

Balancing the mundane holiness of chapters 18–20 is the ritual holiness required of the nation (21–25). First, the priests had to conform to standards beyond those of the laymen; one level for all priests, and a higher level for the high priest (21:1–15). Additionally, certain physical defects would disqualify one otherwise qualified for the priesthood (21:16–24).

The sacrifices they offered were also subject to certain restrictions (22), such as who was allowed to participate in the eating of them (22:3–16), and what kinds of defects or other factors would disqualify their being offered in sacrifice (22:17–30). The purpose for such restrictions was that the holiness of God must be reflected in the sacrifices (22:31–33).

The next aspect of ritual holiness required of the nation was the annual festivals (23). By these God had his people remember his great benefits in their past and anticipate his greater benefits in their future.

The regular maintenance of the tabernacle would include the supply (from the people) and daily replenishment of oil for the lampstand and the weekly replacement of the Bread of the Presence (by the priests; 24:1–9). The episode of blasphemy, with the attendant waiting on God for his decision, and its execution (24:10–23) reemphasize the seriousness of the matter of the holiness of God: irreverence was a capital crime. Its placement immediately before the chapter on the special years (25) is almost ominous, in that it was on the basis of sabbatical years not kept that the divine judgment by Babylon came on Judah (2 Chron 36:21).

As a kind of delayed conclusion to the Sinaitic covenant (of Hittite form), the blessings and curses (26:3–39) provide the incentives both positive and negative for faithfully observing the covenant (summarized in 26:1–2). The great grace of God is reflected in the inclusion of conditions for restoration (26:40–46): God was determined to keep his promise to Abraham, and not even Israelite disobedience could prevent it. But only to a repentant and obedient Israel would he pour out those blessings.

The concluding chapter on vows (27) serves at once as a kind of cap for the preceding chapter (“However, the subject of vows does relate directly to the curses in chapter 26 since people are more likely to make rash vows in times of dire distress”[2]) and as a balance to the opening chapters on sacrifices (“Leviticus began with regulations concerning sanctuary offerings, and it is appropriate that it should conclude on the same theme”[3]).

Outline

I. The way of approach to God: Sacrifice  1–16

A. The laws (regulations) of sacrifices  1–7

1. General regulations for the people  1:1—6:7

a) Introduction  1:1–2

b) Sweet savor offerings  1:3—3:17

(1) Burnt offerings (עֹלָה)  1:3–17

(a) Young bull  1:3–9

(b) Ram or goat  1:10–13

(c) Bird  1:14–17

(2) Grain offerings (מִנְחָה)  2

(a) Raw  2:1–3

(b) Cooked  2:4–10

(c) Requirements: no leaven, honey; include salt, oil, incense  2:11–13

(d) First fruits  2:14–16

(3) Peace offerings (שֶׁלֶם, θυσία σωτηρίου) 3

(a) Bull or cow  3:1–5

(b) Sheep  3:6–11

(c) Goat  3:12–17

c) Non-sweet savor offerings  4:1—6:7

(1) Sin offerings (חַטָּאת;)  4:1—5:13

(a) Introduction  4:1–2

(b) Priest  4:3–12

(c) Whole congregation  4:13–21

(d) Leader  4:22–26

(e) Common person  4:27–35

i) Goat  4:27–31

ii) Lamb  4:32–35

(f) Occasion: four sins  5:1–6

(g) Poor  5:7–13

(2) Guilt offerings (אָשָׁם)  5:14—6:7

(a) Unintentional violation of sacred property  5:14–16

(b) Suspected transgressions of divine commands  5:17–19

(c) Violation of property rights  6:1–7

2. Additional regulations for the priests  6:8—7:21

a) Burnt offerings  6:8–13

b) Grain offerings  6:14–23

c) Sin offerings  6:24–30

d) Guilt offerings  7:1–6

e) Summary of priests’ portions (all but peace offerings) 7:7–10

f) Peace offerings  7:11–21

3. Additional regulations for the people  7:22–36

a) No fat or blood to be consumed  7:22–27

b) The priests’ portions (peace offerings)  7:28–34

c) The priests’ portions (all offerings)  7:35–36

4. Summary  7:37–38

B. Inauguration of the priestly-sacrificial system  8–10

1. Consecration of Aaron and sons  8

a) Solemn convocation  8:1–4

b) Clothing and anointing the priests and sanctuary  8:5–13

c) Ordination sacrifices  8:14–29

(1) Sin offering for the priests  8:14–17

(2) Burnt offering  8:18–21

(3) Ordination ceremony  8:22–29

d) Anointing with oil and blood  8:30

e) Instructions for ordination quarantine  8:31–36

2. Initiation of Aaron and sons in their ministry  9–10

a) Moses’ and Aaron’s faithful service  9

(1) Preparatory instructions for the sacrifices  9:1–7

(2) Aaron’s sacrifices  9:8–21

(a) Offerings for the high priest  9:8–14

i) Sin offering  9:8–11

ii) Burnt offering  9:12–14

(b) Offerings for the people  9:15–21

i) Sin offering  9:15

ii) Burnt offering  9:16

iii) Grain offering  9:17

iv) Peace offering  9:18–21

(3) Appearance of God’s glory  9:22–24

b) God’s dealings with violations  10

(1) Judgment for inexcusable violation: deaths of Nadab and Abihu  10:1–7

(2) Reaffirmation of holy demands  10:8–15

(a) Warning concerning holiness  10:8–11

(b) Recommission to faithful service  10:12–15

(3) Tolerance of excusable violation: grief  10:16–20

C. Laws of (un)cleanness (cf. 10:10)  11–15

1. Kosher animals and defiling carcasses  11

a) Clean and unclean animals  11:1–23

(1) Land animals (cloven hoof, cud chewing)  11:1–8

(2) Fish (fins and scales)  11:9–12

(3) Birds  11:13–19

(4) Flying insects  11:20–23

b) Defilement from dead animals  11:24–40

c) Summary  11:41–47

2. Women’s defilement by childbirth  12

a) Days of uncleanness  12:1–5

(1) Male child  12:1–4

(2) Female child  12:5

b) Sacrifices of purification  12:6–8

3. Leprosy  13–14

a) Diagnosis and treatment of leprous people  13:1–46

(1) Diagnosis  13:1–44

(a) General  13:1–17

i) First test series  13:1–8

ii) Second test series  13:9–17

(b) Boils  13:18–23

(c) Burns  13:24–28

(d) Scale  13:28–37

(e) Eczema  13:38–39

(f) Baldness  13:40–44

(2) Treatment: quarantine  13:45–46

b) Diagnosis and treatment of leprous garments  13:47–59

c) Ritual cleansing of cured people  14:1–32

(1) Two-bird ritual  14:1–9

(2) Offerings  14:10–32

(a) Normal  14:10–20

(b) Poor man  14:21–32

d) Diagnosis and treatment of leprous houses  14:33–53

(1) Diagnosis and treatment  14:33–42

(2) Diagnosis and treatment of recurrence  14:43–47

(3) Ritual cleansing  14:48–53

e) Conclusion  14:54–57

4. Discharges  15

a) Nondescript discharges  15:1–15

(1) Extent of contamination  15:1–12

(2) Ritual cleansing  15:13–15

b) Seminal discharges  15:16–18

c) Female discharges  15:19–30

(1) Menstruation  15:19–24

(2) Non-menstrual discharges  15:25–27

(3) Ritual cleansing  15:28–30

d) Theological conclusion  15:31–33

D. The Day of Atonement  16

1. The occasion  16:1

2. The ceremony prescriptions  16:2–28

a) General overview  16:2–10

(1) High priest’s preparations  16:2–5

(2) The ceremonies  16:6–10

b) Specific  16:11–28

(1) Sin offerings in the holy place  16:11–17

(a) For the high priest  16:11–14

(b) For the people  16:15–17

(2) Cleansing of the altar  16:18–19

(3) The scapegoat  16:20–22

(4) Final matters  16:23–28

(a) Cleansing and changing (clothes) of high priest  16:23–24a

(b) Burnt offering  16:24b

(c) Burning of sin offerings fat on the altar  16:25

(d) Cleansing of scapegoat attendant  16:26

(e) Burning of sin offering carcasses  16:27

(f) Cleansing of sin offering incinerator  16:28

3. Its institution as an annual festival  16:29–34

II. The way of fellowship with God: Separation  17–27

A. Sacredness of blood  17

1. Introduction  17:1–2

2. Slaughtering only at the tabernacle  17:3–9

a) Non-sacred slaughterings  17:3–7

b) Sacred slaughterings  17:8–9

3. Prohibition of eating blood  17:10–16

B. Interpersonal relations, morality  18–20

1. Sexual prohibitions: protection of marriage  18

a) Introduction: covenant morality  18:1–5

b) Incestuous relations  18:6–18

c) Canaanite (v. 24) deviations  18:19–23

d) Warning concerning such “abominations”  18:24–30

2. Details of holy living: Decalogue expanded  19

a) Introduction  19:1–2

b) Reverence  19:3–8

(1) For parents  19:3a

(2) For sabbath  19:3b

(3) For God  19:4–8

(a) Idols  19:4

(b) Peace offerings  19:5–8

c) Fraternal concerns  19:9–18

(1) Gleanings  19:9–10

(2) Stealing  19:11a

(3) Lying  19:11b

(4) False witness  19:12

(5) Abuse of defenseless  19:13–14

(6) Perversion of justice  19:15–16

(7) Hate (love)  19:17–18

d) Miscellaneous laws  19:19–37

(1) Unequal mixing  19:19

(2) Sexual violation of a slave  19:20–22

(3) Fruit trees in the Land  19:23–25

(4) Pagan practices  19:26–28

(5) Prostitution  19:29

(6) Sabbaths  19:30

(7) Mediums  19:31

(8) Reverence for aged  19:32

(9) Love for aliens  19:33–34

(10) Social justice  19:35–36

(11) Summary  19:37

3. Penalties for violation  20

a) Idolatry (Molech)  20:1–5

b) Consulting mediums  20:6–8

c) Cursing parent  20:9

d) Sexual sins  20:10–21

(1) Capital offenses  20:10–16

(2) Non-capital offenses  20:17–21

e) Purpose: purity of the land  20:22–26

f) Spiritism  20:27

C. Ritual holiness  21–25

1. Priestly holiness  21

a) Restrictions on ordinary priests  21:1–9

b) Restrictions on the high priest  21:10–15

c) Disqualifications from the priesthood  21:16–24

2. Sacrificial restrictions  22

a) Introduction  22:1–2

b) Restrictions on eating of the sacrifices  22:3–16

(1) Priests  22:3–9

(2) Non-priests  22:10–16

c) Restrictions on animals to be sacrificed  22:17–30

(1) Disqualifying features  22:17–25

(2) Other restrictions  22:26–30

d) Theological conclusion  22:31–33

3. Annual festivals  23

a) Introduction  23:1–4

b) Spring festivals  23:5–22

(1) Passover–Unleavened Bread  23:5–8

(2) Firstfruits  23:9–14

(3) Weeks (Pentecost)  23:15–22

c) Fall festivals  23:23–43

(1) Trumpets  23:23–25

(2) Day of Atonement  23:26–32

(3) Tabernacles  23:33–43

d) Concluding summary  23:44

4. Reverence for God  24

a) Ceremonial  24:1–9

(1) Oil for the lampstand  24:1–4

(2) Bread of the Presence  24:5–9

b) Verbal  24:10–23

(1) The incident of blasphemy  24:10–12

(2) The judgment from God  24:13–22

(3) The execution  24:23

5. Special years  25

a) Sabbatical years  25:1–7

b) Jubilee years  25:8–55

(1) Observance  25:8–22

(2) Redemption of property  25:23–38

(3) Redemption of slaves  25:39–55

D. Covenant blessings and cursings  26

1. Reiteration of primary commands  26:1–2

2. Blessings for obedience  26:3–13

a) Agricultural fertility  26:3–5

b) Peace  26:6–10

c) Divine presence  26:11–13

3. Curses for disobedience  26:14–39

a) Punishment in the land  26:14–26

b) Eviction from the land  26:27–39

4. Conditions for restoration  26:40–46

E. Vows  27

1. People and animals  27:1–13

a) People  27:1–8

b) Animals  27:9–13

2. Property  27:14–25

a) Houses  27:14–15

b) Land  27:16–25

3. Other dues and gifts  27:26–33

a) Firstborn animals  27:26–27

b) Proscribed things  27:28–29

c) Tithes  27:30–33

(1) Vegetable  27:30–31

(2) Animal  27:32–33

4. Conclusion  27:34